ವಿಷಯಕ್ಕೆ ಹೋಗು

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ

ಕೊಂಡಿ ಸೆರಾಲೆ
ವಿಕಿಪೀಡಿಯ, ಒಂಜಿ ಸೊತಂತ್ರ ವಿಶ್ವಕೋಶ

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ, ಅಧಿಕೃತವಾಗಿ "ರಿಪಬ್ಲಿಕ್ ಆಫ್ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ", ಕೆರಿಬಿಯನ್ ಸಮುದ್ರದ ಒಂಜಿ ದ್ವೀಪ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ ಆಯಿತು. ಇತ್ತೆ 4,195 ದ್ವೀಪು, ಚಿಕ್ಕ ದ್ವೀಪು, ಬಂಡೆಗಡ್ದು ಇತ್ತೆ, ಇತ್ತೆ ತಾನೆ "ಇಸ್ಲಾ ಡೆ ಲಾ ಜುವೆಂಟುಡ್" ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಮುಖ್ಯ ದ್ವೀಪು. ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ, ಕೆರಿಬಿಯನ್ ಸಮುದ್ರ, ಮೆಕ್ಸಿಕೋ ಕೊಲ್ಲಿ, ಅಟ್ಲಾಂಟಿಕ್ ಮಹಾಸಾಗರದ ಸಂಗಮದ ತಡೆ ಇತ್ತೆ. ಇತ್ತೆ ಯುಕಟಾನ್ ಪ್ರायद್ವೀಪದ ಪೂರ್ವ, ಫ್ಲೋರಿಡಾ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಬಹಾಮಾಸ್ ದಕ್ಷಿಣ, ಹೈಟಿ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಡೊಮಿನಿಕನ್ ರಿಪಬ್ಲಿಕ್ ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ, ಜಮೈಕಾ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಕೇಮನ್ ದ್ವೀಪುಗಳ ಉತ್ತರದ ತಡೆ ಇತ್ತೆ. ಹವಾನಾ ಇತ್ತೆ ದೊಡ್ಡ ನಗರ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ರಾಜಧಾನಿ. ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ, ಹೈಟಿ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಡೊಮಿನಿಕನ್ ರಿಪಬ್ಲಿಕ್ ತಡಿಯೆ, ಕೆರಿಬಿಯನ್ ಪ್ರದೇಶದ ಮೂವತ್ತನೆ ಜನಸಂಖ್ಯೆ ಇತ್ತೆ, ಸುಮಾರು 10 ಮಿಲಿಯನ್ ಜನ ಇತ್ತೆ. ಭೂಪ್ರದೇಶದ ತಡೆ, ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಕೆರಿಬಿಯನ್ ಪ್ರದೇಶದ ದೊಡ್ಡ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ ಆಯಿತು. ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿಯ ತಡೆ, ಲ್ಯಾಟಿನ್ ಅಮೆರಿಕದ ಭಾಗ ಆಯಿತು.[೧]

ಇತಿಹಾಸ

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ BC ನಾಲ್ಕನೆ ಸಾವಿರ ವರ್ಷ ತಡೆಯಿಂದ ಮನುಷ್ಯರು ವಾಸ ಮಾಡ್ದು. ಗುವಾನಹಟಬೆ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ತೈನೋ ಜನಾಂಗದವರು 15ನೆ ಶತಮಾನ ತಡೆ ಸ್ಪೇನ್ ಜನಾಂಗದ ಕಾಲೊನೀಕರಣದ ಕಾಲದ ತಡೆ ಇತ್ತೆ. 1492 ಅಕ್ಟೋಬರ್ 27ನೆ ತಾರೀಕು ಕ್ರಿಸ್ಟೋಫರ್ ಕೊಲಂಬಸ್ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದ ತಡೆಗೆ ಬಂದು, ಇತ್ತೆ "ಇಸ್ಲಾ ಜುವಾನಾ" ಎಂತ್ ಹೆಸರು ಇತ್ತೆ. 1511 ತಡೆ ಡಿಯೆಗೋ ವೆಲಾಸ್ಕೆಜ್ ಡೆ ಕುಯೆಲ್ಲಾರ್ ಬಾರಾಕೋವಾ ತಡೆ ಸ್ಪೇನ್ ಕಾಲೊನಿ ಸ್ಥಾಪನೆ ಮಾಡ್ದು. 1514 ತಡೆ ಹವಾನಾ ಸ್ಥಾಪನೆ ಆಯಿತು, 1607 ತಡೆ ರಾಜಧಾನಿ ಆಯಿತು.

ತೈನೋ ಜನಾಂಗದವರು ಎಂಕೊಮಿಯೆಂಡಾ ಪದ್ಧತಿಯ ತಡೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕೆಲಸ ಮಾಡ್ದು, ಇತ್ತೆ ಯೂರೋಪ್ ಕಾಲದ ಫ್ಯೂಡಲ್ ಪದ್ಧತಿಯ ತಡೆ ಇತ್ತೆ. ಇತ್ತೆ ಜನಾಂಗದವರು ಬಾಯಿಲು ಕಾಯಿಲೆ, ಕಠಿಣ ಪರಿಸ್ಥಿತಿ, ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಶೋಷಣೆಯ ತಡೆ ಮರಣಪಟ್ಟು. 1529 ತಡೆ ಮಿಸಿಲ್ಸ್ ಕಾಯಿಲೆ ತಡೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಬಹುಮಂದಿ ತೈನೋ ಜನಾಂಗದವರು ಮರಣಪಟ್ಟು.

1898 ತಡೆ "ಸ್ಪ್ಯಾನಿಷ್-ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ಯುದ್ಧ" ಮುಗಿದ್, "ಪ್ಯಾರಿಸ್ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ" ಮೂಲಕ ಸ್ಪೇನ್ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದ ಮೇಲೆ ತನ್ನ ಹಕ್ಕು ತ್ಯಜನೆ. 1902 ಮೇ 20 ತಡೆ, ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಅಧಿಕೃತವಾಗಿ ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯ ಪಡ್ದು, "ರಿಪಬ್ಲಿಕ್ ಆಫ್ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ" ಘೋಷಣೆ ಆಯಿತು. ಆದರೆ "ಪ್ಲಾಟ್ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ" ತಡೆ, ಅಮೆರಿಕ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದ ಆಂತರಿಕ ವಿಷಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಹಸ್ತಕ್ಷೇಪದ ಹಕ್ಕು ಇತ್ತೆ.[೨]

1906 ತಡೆ, ಚುನಾವಣೆ ವಿವಾದದ ತಡೆ ಅಮೆರಿಕ ಸೇನೆ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರವೇಶ ಮಾಡ್ದು. 1908 ತಡೆ, ಜೋಸೆ ಮಿಗುಯೆಲ್ ಗೊಮೆಜ್ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷ ಆಯಿದು. 1924 ತಡೆ, ಜೆರಾರ್ಡೋ ಮಚಾಡೋ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷ ಆಯಿದು; ಇತ್ತೆ ಕಾಲದ ತಡೆ ಪ್ರವಾಸೋದ್ಯಮ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿದ್ದು, ಜೂಜು ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ವೇಶ್ಯಾವೃತ್ತಿ ಕೂಡ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಯಿದು.[೨]

1933 ತಡೆ, ಫುಲ್ಜಿencio ಬಾಟಿಸ್ಟಾ ಎಂತ್ ಸರ್ಜೆಂಟ್ ಹೋರಾಟದ ತಡೆ ಸರ್ಕಾರದ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ತಿರುಗುಬುಡ್ದು. ಇತ್ತೆ ಕಾಲದ ತಡೆ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಅಸ್ಥಿರತೆ ಇತ್ತೆ. 1940 ತಡೆ, ಹೊಸ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ರೂಪಾಯಿದು, ಬಾಟಿಸ್ಟಾ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷ ಆಯಿದು. 1944 ತಡೆ, ರಾಮೋನ್ ಗ್ರಾವ್ ಸಂ ಮಾರ್ಟಿನ್, 1948 ತಡೆ ಕಾರ್ಲೋಸ್ ಪ್ರಿಯೋ ಸೋಕಾರಾಸ್ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರಾಗಿ ಆಯಿದು[೨].

1952 ತಡೆ, ಬಾಟಿಸ್ಟಾ ಮತ್ತೆ ಸೇನೆ ಮೂಲಕ ಅಧಿಕಾರಕ್ಕೆ ಬಂದು, 1940 ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ರದ್ದು ಮಾಡ್ದು. ಇತ್ತೆ ಕಾಲದ ತಡೆ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳು ಕಡಿತ ಆಯಿದು, ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಅಸ್ಥಿರತೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಯಿದು. 1953–1959 ತಡೆ, ಫಿಡೆಲ್ ಕ್ಯಾಸ್ಟ್ರೋ ನೇತೃತ್ವದ "ಜುಲೈ 26 ಚಲನೆ" ಬಾಟಿಸ್ಟಾ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ ನಡೆಸಿದ್ದು, 1959 ಜನವರಿ 1 ತಡೆ ಬಾಟಿಸ್ಟಾ ರಾಜೀನಾಮೆ ಕೊಟ್ಟು ದೇಶ ಬಿಟ್ಟು ಹೋಗ್ದು. ಫಿಡೆಲ್ ಕ್ಯಾಸ್ಟ್ರೋ ಹವಾನಾ ತಡೆ ಪ್ರವೇಶ ಮಾಡ್ದು, ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ ಯಶಸ್ವಿ ಆಯಿದು.[೩]

1959 ತಡೆ, ಫಿಡೆಲ್ ಕ್ಯಾಸ್ಟ್ರೋ ನೇತೃತ್ವದ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ ಯಶಸ್ವಿಯಾಗಿ ಬಾಟಿಸ್ಟಾ ಸರ್ಕಾರವನ್ನು ತಿರಸ್ಕರ್ದು. ಕ್ಯಾಸ್ಟ್ರೋ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷನಾಗಿ ಅಧಿಕಾರಕ್ಕೆ ಬಂದು, ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಕಮ್ಯುನಿಸ್ಟ್ ಪಕ್ಷದ ನೇತೃತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿ ಹೊಸ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಸ್ಥಾಪನೆ ಆಯಿದು.[೪]

ಅಮೆರಿಕದ ಸಂಬಂಧ: ಕ್ರಾಂತಿಯ ನಂತರ, ಅಮೆರಿಕ-ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಸಂಬಂಧ ತೀವ್ರವಾಗಿ ಕೆಡಿದು. 1960–1964 ತಡೆ, ಅಮೆರಿಕ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ನಿಷೇಧ, ಆಸ್ತಿ ತಡೆ, ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ರಾಜತಾಂತ್ರಿಕ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ ರದ್ದು ಮಾಡ್ದು.[೫]

ಬೇ ಆಫ್ ಪಿಗ್ಸ್ ದಾಳಿ: 1961 ತಡೆ, ಅಮೆರಿಕ ಬೆಂಬಲಿತ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಶರಣಾರ್ಥಿಗಳ ತಂಡ "ಬ್ರಿಗೇಡ್ 2506" ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದ ಮೇಲೆ ದಾಳಿ ಮಾಡ್ದು. ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಸೇನೆ ದಾಳಿಯನ್ನು ತಿರಸ್ಕರ್ದು, ದಾಳಿ ವಿಫಲ ಆಯಿದು.[೫]

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಕ್ಷಿಪಣಿ ಸಂಕಷ್ಟ: 1962 ತಡೆ, ಸೋವಿಯತ್ ಯೂನಿಯನ್ R-12 ಕ್ಷಿಪಣಿಗಳನ್ನು ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಸ್ಥಾಪನೆ ಮಾಡ್ದು. ಇತ್ತೆ "ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಮಿಸೈಲ್ ಕ್ರೈಸಿಸ್" ಎಂತ್ ಪ್ರಸಿದ್ಧ ಆಯಿದು, ಜಗತ್ತನ್ನು ಅಣುಯುದ್ಧದ ಅಂಚಿಗೆ ತಂದು[೫].

ಆಫ್ರಿಕಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಸ್ತಕ್ಷೇಪ: 1970–1980 ತಡೆ, ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಆಫ್ರಿಕಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಲವಾರು ಯುದ್ಧಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಭಾಗವಹಿಸಿದು. ಅಂಗೋಲಾ, ಇಥಿಯೋಪಿಯಾ, ಮೊಜಾಂಬಿಕ್, ಗಿನಿ-ಬಿಸ್ಸೌ ಮುಂತಾದ ದೇಶಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಸೇನೆ, ವೈದ್ಯಕೀಯ ಸಹಾಯ, ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ತರಬೇತಿ ನೀಡಿದ್ದು.[೬]

ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರಾಚ್ಯ ಮತ್ತು ಲ್ಯಾಟಿನ್ ಅಮೆರಿಕ: ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಸಿರಿಯಾ, ಇರಾಕ್, ದಕ್ಷಿಣ ಯೆಮೆನ್ ಮುಂತಾದ ದೇಶಗಳಿಗೆ ಸಹಾಯ ನೀಡಿದ್ದು. ಲ್ಯಾಟಿನ್ ಅಮೆರಿಕದ ನಿಕಾರಾಗುವಾ, ಬೊಲಿವಿಯಾ ಮುಂತಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಬಂಡಾಯ ಚಟುವಟಿಕೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಬೆಂಬಲ ಕೊಡುಪೆನೆ.[೭]

ಸೋವಿಯತ್ ಸಹಾಯ: ಶೀತಯುದ್ಧದ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ, ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ $33 ಬಿಲಿಯನ್ ಸೋವಿಯತ್ ಸಹಾಯ ಪಡ್ದು. ಇತ್ತೆ ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಬಲವರ್ಧನೆ, ಸೇನಾ ಸಾಮರ್ಥ್ಯ, ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಸ್ಥಿರತೆಗಾಗಿ ಉಪಯೋಗ ಆಯಿದು[೮].

ಆರ್ಥಿಕತೆ

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾ ಒಂಜಿ ಯೋಜಿತ ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಇತ್ತೆ, ಜಾಸ್ತಿ ಉದ್ಯಮಗಳು ಸರ್ಕಾರದ ನಿಯಂತ್ರಣದ ತಡೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಇತ್ತೆ. ಪ್ರವಾಸೋದ್ಯಮ, ಸಕ್ಕರೆ, ತಂಬಾಕು, ಕಾಫಿ, ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ವೈದ್ಯಕೀಯ ಸೇವೆ ಇತ್ತೆ ದೇಶದ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಆದಾಯದ ಮೂಲ. 2010 ಇಂದ ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಖಾಸಗಿ ಉದ್ಯಮಕ್ಕೆ ಅವಕಾಶ ಕೊಟ್ಟ್‌ಡು, ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಸುಧಾರಣೆಗೊಲು. 1960 ಇಂದ ಇಪ್ಪುನ ತನಕ ಅಮೆರಿಕದ ನಿರ್ಬಂಧ ನಡಿತಾ ಇತ್ತೆ, ಇತ್ತೆ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಹಣಕಾಸು ವ್ಯವಹಾರ ತಡೆ ಇತ್ತೆ. 2021 ತಡೆ, ಎರಡು ಕರೆನ್ಸಿ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಒಟ್ಟುಗೂಡ್ದು, ದರ ಏರಿಕೆ ಬುಕ್ಕೊಾ ಅಸ್ಥಿರತೆ ಉಂಟಾಯಿದು. 2023 OCDH ವರದಿಯ ತಡೆ, 88% ಜನರು ತೀವ್ರ ಬಡತನದ ತಡೆ ಬಾಳ್ತಾ ಇತ್ತೆ, ಇತ್ತೆ ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಸಂಕಷ್ಟದ ತೀವ್ರತೆ ತೋರ್ದು.

భూగోళ శాస్త్రం

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

ಕುಬಾ ೧೯°N ಮುಕ್ಕಲ್ನು ೨೪°N ಮುಕ್ಕಲು ಅಂಟು ೭೪°W ಮುಕ್ಕಲು ೮೫°W ಮುಕ್ಕಲು ಲಾಂಗಿಟ್ಯೂಡ್ಸ್ ನಲ್ಲಿ ಇರ್ನ್ನು ಉತ್ತರ ಕ್ಯಾರಿಬಿಯನ್ ಕಡಲ್ನುಲಿ, ಮೆಕ್ಸಿಕೋ ಗಲ್ಫ್ ಮತ್ತ ಅಟ್ಲಾಂಟಿಕ್ ಓಷನ್ ಸಂಧಾನದ ಜಾಗದಲ್ಲಿ 4,195 ದ್ವೀಪ, ಕಸ್ ಆನ್ ತುದಿ ದ್ವೀಪಗಳ ಸುಂದರ ಜೋಡಣೆಯಾಗಿದೆ. ಫ್ಲೋರಿಡಾ (ಕಿ ವೆಸ್ಟ್, ಫ್ಲೋರಿಡಾ) ಉತ್ತರ ಉ ಉತ್ತರ-ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ದಿಕ್ಕು 150 ಕಿಮೀ (93 ಮೈಲಿ) ದೂರವನು ಫ್ಲೋರಿಡಾ ಸ್ಟ್ರೇಟ್ಸ್ ದಾಟಿ ಇರುತ್ತದೆ, ಮತ್ತ ದ ಬಾಹಾಮಾಸ್ (ಕೇ ಲೊಬೋಸ್) 22.5 ಕಿಮೀ (14 ಮೈಲಿ) ಉತ್ತರ ದಿಕ್ಕು ಇರುತ್ತದೆ. ಮೆಕ್ಸಿಕೋ ಯುಕ್ಯಾಟಾನ್ ಚಾನಲ್ ದಾಟಿ ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ದಿಕ್ಕು 210 ಕಿಮೀ (130.5 ಮೈಲಿ), ಕುಯಿಂಟಾನಾ ರೂ ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಕಬೋ ಕ್ಯಾಟೋಚೆ ತುದಿಯೊಂದಿಗೆ ಅಲ್ಪದು ದೂರವು ಇರುತ್ತದೆ[೯].

హైటి క్యూబాకు తూర్పు దిశగా సుమారు 78 కి.మీ (48.5 మైళ్లు) దూరంలో ఉంది, మరియు జమైకా దక్షిణ దిశగా 148 కి.మీ (92 మైళ్లు) దూరంలో ఉంది. క్యూబా ప్రధాన ద్వీపం కాగా, దాని చుట్టూ నాలుగు చిన్న దీవుల సమూహాలు ఉన్నాయి: ఉత్తర–పశ్చిమ తీరంలో కలరాడోస్ ఆర్చిపెలాగో, ఉత్తర–మధ్య అట్లాంటిక్ తీరంలో సబానా–కమాగువే ఆర్చిపెలాగో, దక్షిణ–మధ్య తీరంలో జార్డినెస్ డే లా రీనా, మరియు దక్షిణ–పశ్చిమ తీరంలో కానారియోస్ ఆర్చిపెలాగో[೧೦][೧೧].

ప్రధాన ద్వీపం క్యూబా అని పిలవబడుతుంది. ఇది 1,250 కి.మీ (780 మైళ్లు) పొడవుగా ఉండి, దేశ భూభాగంలో ఎక్కువ భాగాన్ని — అంటే 104,338 చ.కి.మీ (40,285 చ.మైళ్లు) — ఆక్రమించి ఉంది. ఇది కరేబియన్ ప్రాంతంలోని అత్యంత పెద్ద ద్వీపం మాత్రమే కాకుండా, భూభాగ పరిమాణం ప్రకారం ప్రపంచంలో 17వ అతిపెద్ద ద్వీపం కూడా. ప్రధాన ద్వీపం ఎక్కువగా సమతల ప్రాంతాలు లేదా కొద్దిగా ఎత్తు తక్కువ గల మైదానాలతో కూడి ఉంటుంది, అయితే ఆగ్నేయ దిశలో ఉన్న సియెరా మాయెస్ట్రా పర్వతాలు ఈ భూభాగానికి భిన్నంగా ఉంటాయి. ఆ పర్వతాల్లో ఉన్న పికో టుర్కినో అనే శిఖరం 1,974 మీటర్లు (6,476 అడుగులు) ఎత్తు కలిగి ఉంది[೧೧].

రెండవ అతిపెద్ద ద్వీపం కానారియోస్ దీవుల సమూహంలో ఉన్న ఇస్లా డే లా జువెంటుడ్ (యూత్ ద్వీపం) కాగా, దాని విస్తీర్ణం 2,204 చ.కి.మీ (851 చ.మైళ్లు). క్యూబా యొక్క అధికారిక విస్తీర్ణం **109,884 చ.కి.మీ (42,426 చ.మైళ్లు)**గా పేర్కొనబడింది. అయితే CIA ప్రకారం, దాని విస్తీర్ణం **110,860 చ.కి.మీ (42,803 చ.మైళ్లు)**గా ఉంటుంది[೧೧].

ట్రాపిక్ ఆఫ్ క్యాన్సర్‌కు దక్షిణంగా మొత్తం ద్వీపం ఉండటంతో, స్థానిక వాతావరణం ఉష్ణమండల వాతావరణంగా ఉంటుంది. అయితే సంవత్సరం పొడవునా వీచే ఈశాన్య దిశ గాలులు (ట్రేడ్ విండ్స్) దానిని కొంత మితంగా ఉంచుతాయి. సముద్ర ఉష్ణోగ్రతను కరేబియన్ ప్రవాహం ప్రభావితం చేస్తుంది, ఇది భూమధ్యరేఖ ప్రాంతం నుంచి వేడి నీటిని తీసుకువస్తుంది. దీనివల్ల క్యూబా వాతావరణం హాంకాంగ్ కంటే వేడిగా ఉంటుంది — రెండూ దాదాపు ఒకే అక్షాంశంలో ఉన్నప్పటికీ, హాంకాంగ్‌కు ఉపఉష్ణమండల వాతావరణం ఉండగా, క్యూబాకు నిజమైన ఉష్ణమండల వాతావరణం ఉంటుంది. సాధారణంగా (ప్రాంతాలవారీగా మారవచ్చు) నవంబర్‌ నుండి ఏప్రిల్‌ వరకు పొడి కాలం, మే నుండి అక్టోబర్‌ వరకు వర్షాకాలం ఉంటుంది. జనవరిలో సగటు ఉష్ణోగ్రత 21 °C (70 °F), జూలైలో 27 °C (81 °F) ఉంటుంది. కరేబియన్ సముద్రం వేడి నీటి ప్రభావం మరియు క్యూబా మెక్సికో గల్ఫ్ ప్రవేశద్వారం వద్ద ఉన్న భౌగోళిక స్థానం కలిసివచ్చి, ఈ దేశాన్ని తరచూ చండమారుతాల (హరికేన్ల) ప్రభావానికి గురిచేస్తాయి. ఇవి ఎక్కువగా సెప్టెంబర్‌ మరియు అక్టోబర్‌ నెలల్లో సంభవిస్తాయి.[೧೦][೧೨]

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಹವಾಮಾನ ಬದಲಾವಣೆ ಉಷ್ಣತೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚಳ, ಕಡಲಿನ ಮಟ್ಟದ ಏರಿಕೆ ಮತ್ತು ಮಳೆಯ ಮಾದರಿಗಳ ಬದಲಾವಣೆಯನ್ನುಂಟುಮಾಡುತ್ತಿದೆ, ಇದು ಕೃಷಿ, ಅರಣ್ಯವಲಯ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರವಾಸೋದ್ಯಮ ಸೇರಿದಂತೆ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಕ್ಷೇತ್ರಗಳನ್ನು ಗಟ್ಟಿಯಾಗಿ ಪ್ರಭಾವಿಸುತ್ತಿದೆ[೧೩].

ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಹವಾಮಾನ ಬದಲಾವಣೆಯ ಪರಿಣಾಮವಾಗಿ ತಾಪಮಾನ ಹೆಚ್ಚಲಿದೆ, ಕಡಲು ಮಟ್ಟಗಳು ಏರಿಕೆಗೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತವೆ ಮತ್ತು ಮಳೆಯ ಮಾದರಿಗಳು ಗೆಾಳಿ ಗೊಂಭಳಿಕವಾಗುತ್ತವೆ. ವಿಶೇಷವಾಗಿ, ಮಳೆಯ ಒಟ್ಟು ಪ್ರಮಾಣ ಕೆಳಮಟ್ಟಕ್ಕೆ ಇಳಿಯುವ ಸಾಧ್ಯತೆ ಇದೆ, ಇದು ಉಳಿತಾಯ, ನೀರಿನ ಲಭ್ಯತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕೃಷಿ ಉತ್ಪಾದನೆಗೆ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಹಿಂಜೆಗಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಳೆ ಯಾವುದು ಒಬ್ಬರೂ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಜಲಸಂಪತ್ತಾಗಿದೆ, ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ ಜಲ ಸುರಕ್ಷತೆ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಸಮಸ್ಯೆಯಾದೀತು.[೧೪]

ಕೃಷಿ ಮತ್ತು ಅರಣ್ಯವು ಬದಲಾವಣೆಯ ಪರಿಣಾಮವಾಗಿ ನಷ್ಟಕ್ಕೆ ಒಳಪಡಬಹುದು, ಏಕೆಂದರೆ ಬೆಳೆಗಳ ಬೆಳವಣಿಗೆಗೆ ಬೇಕಾದ ಮಾರುಕಟ್ಟೆ ನೀರು ಕೊರತೆ ಆಗಬಹುದು. ಪ್ರವಾಸೋದ್ಯಮವೂ ಹಾನಿಯಾಗಬಹುದು, ವಿಶೇಷವಾಗಿ ಕಡಲು ತೀರ ಪ್ರದೇಶಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಬಡಾವಣೆಯು ಕಡಲಿನ ನೀರಿನ ಏರಿಕೆಯೊಂದಿಗೆ ದೃಷ್ಟಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ[೧೫].

ಆರೋಗ್ಯದ ಮೇಲೆ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳು ಸಹ ಬಾಧಕವಾಗಬಹುದು. ವಾತಾವರಣದ ಉಷ್ಣತೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿದಂತೆ ಹೃದಯ ಸಂಬಂಧಿತ, ಶ್ವಾಸಕೋಶ ಹಾಗೂ ವೈರಲ್ ರೋಗಗಳ ಪ್ರಮಾಣ ಹೆಚ್ಚುವ ಸಂಭವವಿದೆ, ಮತ್ತು ಬಯಾಲಾಜಿಕಲ್ ಸೋರ್ಷಕಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಕೀಟಗಳು ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಸಕ್ರಿಯವಾಗಬಹುದು[೧೬][೧೭].

ಹೀಗಾಗಿ, ಕ್ಯೂಬಾದದಲ್ಲಿ ಹವಾಮಾನ ಬದಲಾವಣೆ ಜಲ, ಆಹಾರ, ಉದ್ಯಮ ಮತ್ತು ಆರೋಗ್ಯ ಎಲ್ಲೆಡೆಯಲ್ಲಿಯೂ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ತೊಂದರೆಗಳನ್ನುಂಟುಮಾಡಬಹುದು. ಜಲ ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ, ಕೃಷಿ ತಂತ್ರಜ್ಞಾನ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಮತ್ತು ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಆರೋಗ್ಯ ತಂತ್ರಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿದ ಸುಧಾರಿತ ತಂತ್ರಗಳು, ಹವಾಮಾನ ಬದಲಾವಣೆಯ ಪರಿಣಾಮವನ್ನು ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಾಡುವಲ್ಲಿ ಸಹಾಯ ಮಾಡಬಹುದು.[೧೮]. పరిశ్రమల పూర్వస్థాయిలతో పోలిస్తే ఉష్ణోగ్రత 2 °C మేర పెరిగితే, క్యూబాలో తీవ్రమైన తుఫాన్ వర్షపాతం సంభవించే అవకాశం మూడు రెట్లు పెరుగుతుంది.[೧೯]. క్యూబా యొక్క వాతావరణ మార్పు నియంత్రణ మరియు అనుకూలత ప్రణాళికల్లో పునరుత్పాదక శక్తి ఉత్పత్తితో పాటు మ్యాంగ్రోవ్ పర్యావరణ వ్యవస్థలను పునరుద్ధరించడం వంటి ప్రకృతి ఆధారిత పరిష్కారాలు కూడా ఉన్నాయి.[೧೫].

హరికేన్ ఇర్మా 2017 సెప్టెంబర్ 8న క్యూబా ద్వీపాన్ని తాకింది, ఆ సమయంలో గాలుల వేగం **260 కి.మీ/గం (72 మీ/సెకం)**గా నమోదైంది.[೨೦], కమాగువే ఆర్చిపెలాగోలో తుఫాన్ అగ్రసరించగా, మధ్యరాత్రి సమయానికి ఇది సియేగో డే అవిలా ప్రావిన్స్ చేరింది మరియు తదుపరి రోజున క్యూబా మీద దాడి కొనసాగించింది.[೨೧]. క్యూబా ప్రధాన ద్వీపం ఉత్తరంలోని కీస్‌ ప్రాంతంలో తీవ్ర నష్టాలు సంభవించాయి. ఆసుపత్రులు, గودాములు మరియు ఫ్యాక్టరీలు దెబ్బతిన్నాయి; ఉత్తర తీరప్రాంతంలో పెద్ద భాగానికి విద్యుత్ అందలేదు. ఆ సమయంలో, సుమారు ఒక మిలియన్ మందికి పైగా ప్రజలు, విపరీత పరిస్థితుల వల్ల, పర్యాటకులు సహా эвాక్యుయేట్ చేయబడ్డారు.[೨೨]. వారాడెరొ రిసార్ట్ ప్రాంతంలో కూడా విస్తృత నష్టం నమోదయింది; ప్రభుత్వం ప్రధాన పర్యాటక సీజన్ ప్రారంభానికి ముందు మురాములు పూర్తవుతాయని విశ్వసించింది.[೨೩]. తదుపరి నివేదికల ప్రకారం, తుఫాన్ సమయంలో పది మంది ప్రాణాలు కోల్పోయారు, అందులో హవానాలో ఏడు మంది ఉన్నారు, వీరిలో ఎక్కువరు భవనాలు పడిపోవడంవల్ల మరణించారు. రాజధాని నగరంలోని కొన్ని ప్రాంతాలు నీటిలో మునిగిపోయాయి[೨೩].

జీవవివిధత్వం

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

క్యూబా బయోలాజికల్ డైవర్సిటీపై రియో కాన్వెన్షన్ను 1992 జూన్ 12న సంతకం చేసింది, మరియు 1994 మార్చ్ 8న ఈ కాన్వెన్షన్‌లో పార్టీ అయ్యింది. తరువాత, క్యూబా **జాతీయ జీవవైవిధ్య వ్యూహం మరియు చర్యల ప్రణాళిక (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan)**ను రూపొందించింది, ఇందులో ఒక సవరణ చేయబడింది, మరియు ఈ సవరణ 2008 జనవరి 24న కాన్వెన్షన్‌కు అందజేయబడింది[೨೪].

క్యూబా యొక్క CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) కి ఇచ్చిన నాల్గవ జాతీయ నివేదిక క్యూబాలో నమోదైన జీవరాజ్యాల జాతుల సంఖ్యను విస్తృతంగా వివరించుతుంది. ప్రధాన జాతి గుంపులు ఇవి[೨೪]:

  • జంతువులు: 17,801 జాతులు[೨೪]
  • బాక్టీరియా: 270 జాతులు[೨೪]
  • క్రొమిస్టా: 707 జాతులు[೨೪]
  • ఫంగస్ (లైకెన్-ఫార్మింగ్ జాతులు సహా): 5,844 జాతులు[೨೪]
  • సస్యాలు: 9,107 జాతులు[೨೪]
  • ప్రోటోజోవా: 1,440 జాతులు[೨೪]

స్థానిక ప్రాణులు:

  • బీ హమ్మింగ్‌బర్డ్ లేదా జుంజున్సిటో: ప్రపంచంలో తెలిసిన చిన్న తీరుపు పక్షి, పొడవు 55 మి.మీ (2+1/8 ఇంచులు).
  • క్యూబన్ ట్రోగన్ లేదా టోకోరోరో: క్యూబా జాతీయ పక్షి, మరియు స్థానిక/endemic జాతి.

ఇతర స్థానిక/endemic జాతులు:

  • క్యూబన్ ముక్కరైన మొసలి (Cuban crocodile)
  • క్యూబన్ హుటియా (Cuban hutia)
  • క్యూబన్ సోలెనోడాన్ (Cuban solenodon)
  • క్యూబన్ గార్ (Cuban gar)
  • క్యూబన్ బోవా (Cuban boa)
  • పోలిమిటా పిక్టా (Polymita picta)

జాతీయ పువ్వు: హెడిచియం కోరోనేరియం (Hedychium coronarium), క్యూబాలో దీనిని మారిపోసా అని పిలుస్తారు.[೨೫]

క్యూబాలో మొత్తం ఆరు భూస్థల ఎకోరీజన్లు (terrestrial ecoregions) ఉన్నాయి. వీటిలో క్యూబన్ తేమగల అడవులు, క్యూబన్ పొడి అడవులు, క్యూబన్ పొగాకు అడవులు, క్యూబన్ తోటలు లేదా బాగ్ ప్రాంతాలు, క్యూబన్ సక్కర చెట్లు/కాక్టస్ స్క్రబ్, మరియు గ్రేటర్ అంటిల్స్ మ్యాంగ్రోవ్స్ ఉన్నాయి. ఈ విభిన్న ఎకోరీజన్లు క్యూబా యొక్క వైవిధ్యభరితమైన భూభాగం మరియు జీవవైవిధ్యానికి కీలకమైన పాత్ర పోషిస్తున్నాయి.[೨೬]. 2019లో, క్యూబా ఫారెస్ట్ ల్యాండ్‌స్కేప్ ఇన్టిగ్రిటీ ఇండెక్స్లో 5.4/10 సగటు స్కోరు పొందింది, ప్రపంచవ్యాప్తంగా 172 దేశాలలో 102వ స్థానంను ర్యాంక్ చేసింది.[೨೭].

Government and politics

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

ಕುಬಾ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ ಒನ್‑ಪಾರ್ಟಿ ಸೋಶಿಯಲಿಸ್ಟ್ ರಾಜ್ಯ ಆಣ್, ಜೆರ್ಮ್ ಮಾರ್ಕ್ಸಿಸಮ್‑ಲೆನಿನಿಸಮ್ ಆಳೋಚನೆಯು ಅನುಸರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. 1976 ರ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ, ಜೆಡ್ಕುಬಾ ಸೋಶಿಯಲಿಸ್ಟ್ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ ಎಣ್ಣೆ ಪರಿಗಣಿಸಿತು, 1992 ರ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ದ್ವಾರಾ ಬದಲಾಯಿಸಲ್ಪಟ್ಟು, ಇದ್ “ಹೊಸೆ ಮಾರ್ಟಿ ಆಣ್ ಮಾರ್ಕ್ಸ್, ಎಂಗೆಲ್ಸ್ ಆಣ್ ಲೆನಿನ್ ರ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಆಣ್ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಆಳೋಚನೆಗಳ ಮಾರ್ಗದರ್ಶನದ ಅಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ” ಇದ್ದು.[೨೮] ಸಂವಿಧಾನದಲ್ಲಿ ಕುಬಾ ಕಮ್ಯುನಿಸ್ಟ್ ಪಕ್ಷನ್ನು “ಸಮಾಜ ಆಣ್ ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಮುಖ್ಯ ನಾಯಕರ ಶಕ್ತಿ” ಎಂದು ವರ್ಣಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ.[೨೮]. ಕುಬಾದ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮಾರ್ಕ್ಸ್‑ಲೆನಿನ್ ಆಳೋಚನೆಯ ಪ್ರಜಾಪ್ರಭುತ್ವ ಕೇಂದ್ರತಂತ್ರ (Democratic Centralism) ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನೆಯನ್ನು ಪ್ರತಿಬಿಂಬಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.[೨೯].

ಕುಬಾ ಕಮ್ಯುನಿಸ್ಟ್ ಪಕ್ಷದ ಮுதல் ಕಾರ್ಯದರ್ಶಿ ಒನ್‑ಪಾರ್ಟಿ ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಹಿರಿಯ ಸ್ಥಾನವಾಗಿದೆ. ಮೊದಲ ಕಾರ್ಯದರ್ಶಿ ಪೊಲಿಟ್‌ಬ್ಯುರೋ ಮತ್ತು ಸೆಕ್ರೆಟರಿಯಟ್ ಅನ್ನು ಮುನ್ನಡೆಸುತ್ತಾನೆ, ಇದರಿಂದ ಈ ಸ್ಥಾನದ ವಹಿಸುವವರು ಕುಬಾದ ಸರ್ಕಾರದಲ್ಲಿ ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಶಕ್ತಿಶಾಲಿ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಯಾಗುತ್ತಾರೆ.[೩೦].ಎರಡು ಮಂಡಳಿಗಳ ಸದಸ್ಯರನ್ನೂ ಜನಶಕ್ತಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಭೆ ಆಯ್ಕೆಮಾಡುತ್ತದೆ.[೨೮]. ಕುಬಾದ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರು, ಜೆಡ್ಕು ಸಭೆ ಆಯ್ಕೆಮಾಡುತ್ತೆ, ಐದು ವರ್ಷಗಳ ಕಾಲ ಸೇವೆ ಮಾಡ್ತಾರೆ, ಆಣ್ 2019 ರ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ಅನುಮೋದನೆಯಿಂದ ಎರಡು ಐದು ವರ್ಷದ ಅವಧಿಗಳ ಮಿತಿ ಇದ್ದು..[೨೮]

ಜನರ ಸುಪ್ರೀಂ ಕೋರ್ಟ್ ಕುಬಾದ ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಉನ್ನತ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ ಶಾಖೆ ಆಗಿದೆ. ಇದು ಪ್ರಾಂತ್ಯೀಯ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಗಳ ನಿರ್ಣಯಗಳ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಹಿತಾಸಕ್ತಿ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳ ಕೊನೆಯ ನಿಲುವಿನ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ ಆಗಿಯೂ ಸೇವೆ ನೀಡುತ್ತದೆ.

ಕುಬಾದ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ವಿಧಾನಸಭೆ, ಅಂದರೆ ಜನಶಕ್ತಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಭೆ (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular), ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಶಕ್ತಿ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆ ಆಗಿದೆ; 474 ಸದಸ್ಯರು ಐದು ವರ್ಷದ ಅವಧಿಗೆ ಸೇವೆ ಸಲ್ಲಿಸುತ್ತಾರೆ.[೨೮]. ಸಭೆ ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೆ ಎರಡು ಸಲ ಸೇರ್ಪಡೆಗೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತದೆ; ಸತ್ರಗಳ ನಡುವೆ ವಿಧಾನ ಶಕ್ತಿ 31 ಸದಸ್ಯರ ಮಂತ್ರಿಗಳ ಮಂಡಳಿ ಯಲ್ಲಿ ಇರುತ್ತದೆ. ಸಭೆಗೆ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳನ್ನು ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಜನಮತದ್ವಾರಾ ಅನುಮೋದಿಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಕ್ರಿಮಿನಲ್ ಅಪರಾಧಕ್ಕೆ ದೋಷಾರೋಪಿಸ್ಪಡದ 16 ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೂ ಮೇಲ್ಪಟ್ಟ ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಕುಬಾದ ನಾಗರಿಕರು ಮತ ಹಾರಿಸಬಹುದು.[೩೧]. ಸಂವಿಧಾನದ ಲೇಖ 131 ಹೇಳುತ್ತದೆ, ಮತದಾನವು "ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರ, ಸಮಾನ ಮತ್ತು ಗುಪ್ತ ಮತದಾನ" ಆಗಿರಬೇಕು ಎಂದು.ಲೇಖ 136 ಹೇಳುತ್ತದೆ: "ಸದಸ್ಯರು ಅಥವಾ ಪ್ರತಿನಿಧಿಗಳು ಆಯ್ಕೆಯಾಗಿದ್ದರೆ, ಚುನಾವಣೆ ಜಿಲ್ಲೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಹಾಕಲ್ಪಟ್ಟ ಮಾನ್ಯ ಮತಗಳ ಅರ್ಧಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಮತಗಳನ್ನು ಪಡೆದಿರಬೇಕು".[೨೮]

ಕುಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಚುನಾವಣೆಗಳಿವೆ, ಆದರೆ ಅವು ಪ್ರಜಾಪ್ರಭುತ್ವ ಪ್ರಕಾರದಂತೆ ಪರಿಗಣಿಸಲ್ಪಡುವುದಿಲ್ಲ.[೩೨][೩೩]. **ಜನಶಕ್ತಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಭೆಗಾಗಿ ನಡೆಯುವ ಚುನಾವಣೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರತಿ ಸ್ಥಾನಕ್ಕೆ ಒಂದೇ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿ ಇರ್ತಾರೆ, ಆಣ್ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳನ್ನು ಕಮ್ಯುನಿಸ್ಟ್ ಪಕ್ಷದಿಂದ ಬಲವಾಗಿ ನಿಯಂತ್ರಿಸಲ್ಪಟ್ಟ ಸಮಿತಿಗಳು ನೇಮಕ ಮಾಡ್ತಾರೆ.[೩೪]. ಬಹುತೇಕ ಶಾಸನ ಕ್ಷೇತ್ರಗಳು ಸಭೆಗೆ ಬಹು ಮಂದಿ ಪ್ರತಿನಿಧಿಗಳನ್ನು ಆಯ್ಕೆ ಮಾಡ್ತಾರೆ. ಮತದಾರರು ತಮ್ಮ ಮತಪತ್ರದಲ್ಲಿ ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಪರವಾಗಿ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳನ್ನು ಆಯ್ಕೆ ಮಾಡಬಹುದು, ಎಲ್ಲ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳನ್ನು ಆಯ್ಕೆ ಮಾಡಬಹುದು, ಅಥವಾ ಎಲ್ಲ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಖಾಲಿ ಬಿಟ್ಟುಬಿಡಬಹುದು. ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ಮತ ಹಾಕಲು ಆಯ್ಕೆ ಇರುವುದಿಲ್ಲ.[೩೫].ಯಾವುದೇ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಪಕ್ಷಕ್ಕೂ, ಕಮ್ಯುನಿಸ್ಟ್ ಪಕ್ಷವನ್ನು ಸೇರಿ, ದ್ವೀಪದಲ್ಲಿ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳನ್ನು ನಾಮನಿರ್ದೇಶನ ಮಾಡಲು ಅಥವಾ ಪ್ರಚಾರ ನಡೆಸಲು ಅನುಮತಿ ಇಲ್ಲ.[೩೬]. ಕುಬಾ ಕಮ್ಯುನಿಸ್ಟ್ ಪಕ್ಷವು 1975 ರಿಂದ ಆರು ಪಕ್ಷ ಮಹಾಸಭಾ ಸಭೆಗಳನ್ನು ನಡೆಸಿದೆ. 2011 ರಲ್ಲಿ, ಪಕ್ಷವು 8,00,000 ಸದಸ್ಯರಿದ್ದು ಎಂದು ಪ್ರಕಟಿಸಿತು, ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರತಿನಿಧಿಗಳು ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ರಾಜ್ಯ ಮಂಡಳಿ ಮತ್ತು ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಭೆಯ ಕನಿಷ್ಠ ಅರ್ಧವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುತ್ತಾರೆ. ಉಳಿದ ಸ್ಥಾನಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಂಪರೆಯಂತೆ ಪಕ್ಷ ಹೊಂದಿಲ್ಲದ ಅಭ್ಯರ್ಥಿಗಳಿಂದ ಭರ್ತಿಮಾಡಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಇತರ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಪಕ್ಷಗಳು ಅಂತಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಮಟ್ಟದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರಚಾರ ಮತ್ತು ಹಣಕಾಸು ಸಂಗ್ರಹಿಸುತ್ತವೆ, ಆದರೆ ಕುಬಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರತಿಪಕ್ಷ ಗುಂಪುಗಳ ಚಟುವಟಿಕೆ ಅತಿಮಿತವಾಗಿದೆ.

According to International IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Cuba performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, however, with particular strengths in gender equality[೩೭]. Moreover, Cuba is considered an authoritarian regime according to The Economist's Democracy Index[೩೮] and Freedom in the World reports[೩೯]. More specifically, Cuba is considered a military dictatorship in the Democracy-Dictatorship Index, and has been described as "a militarized society" with the armed forces having long been the most powerful institution in the country.[೪೦]

In February 2013, President of the State Council Raúl Castro announced he would resign in 2018, ending his five-year term, and that he hopes to implement permanent term limits for future Cuban presidents, including age limits[೪೧].

Miguel Díaz-Canel was elected president on 18 April 2018 after the resignation of Raúl Castro. On 19 April 2021, Díaz-Canel became First Secretary of the Communist Party. He is the first non-Castro to be in such top position since the Cuban revolution of 1959.[೪೨]

Administrative divisions

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

The country is subdivided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). These were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of the Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. The provinces are divided into municipalities.

  1. Pinar del Río
  2. Artemisa
  3. Havana
  4. Mayabeque
  5. Matanzas
  6. Cienfuegos
  7. Villa Clara
  8. Sancti Spíritus
  1. Ciego de Ávila
  2. Camagüey
  3. Las Tunas
  4. Granma
  5. Holguín
  6. Santiago de Cuba
  7. Guantánamo
  8. Isla de la Juventud

Cuba is a founding member of the United Nations, G77, Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, ALBA, and Organization of American States.

Cuba has conducted a foreign policy that is uncharacteristic of such a minor, developing country[೪೩]. Under Castro, Cuba was heavily involved in wars in Africa, Central America and Asia. Cuba supported Algeria in 1961–1965[೪೪] and sent tens of thousands of troops to Angola during the Angolan Civil War[೪೫]. Other countries that featured Cuban involvement include Ethiopia[೪೬], Guinea[೪೭], Guinea-Bissau[೪೭], Mozambique[೪೬], and Yemen[೪೮]. Lesser-known actions include the 1959 missions to the Dominican Republic[೪೯]. The expedition failed, but a prominent monument to its members was erected in their memory in Santo Domingo by the Dominican government, and they feature prominently at the country's Memorial Museum of the Resistance[೪೯].

In 2008, the European Union (EU) and Cuba agreed to resume full relations and cooperation activities. Cuba is a founding member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. At the end of 2012, tens of thousands of Cuban medical personnel worked abroad, with as many as 30,000 doctors in Venezuela alone via the two countries' oil-for-doctors program.

In 1996, the United States, then under President Bill Clinton, brought in the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act, better known as the Helms–Burton Act. In 2009, United States President Barack Obama stated on 17 April, in Trinidad and Tobago that "the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba", and reversed the Bush Administration's prohibition on travel and remittances by Cuban-Americans from the United States to Cuba. Five years later, an agreement between the United States and Cuba, popularly called the "Cuban thaw", brokered in part by Canada and Pope Francis, began the process of restoring international relations between the two countries. They agreed to release political prisoners and the United States began the process of creating an embassy in Havana. This was realized on 30 June 2015, when Cuba and the U.S. reached a deal to reopen embassies in their respective capitals on 20 July 2015 and reestablish diplomatic relations. Earlier in the same year, the White House announced that President Obama would remove Cuba from the American government's list of nations that sponsor terrorism, which Cuba reportedly welcomed as "fair". On 17 September 2017, the United States considered closing its Cuban embassy following mysterious medical symptoms experienced by its staff. In the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing international isolation of Russia, Cuba emerged as one of the few countries that maintained friendly relations with the Russian Federation. Cuban leader Miguel Diaz-Canel visited Vladimir Putin in Moscow in November 2022, where the two leaders opened a monument of Fidel Castro, as well as speaking out against U.S. sanctions against Russia and Cuba.

Embargo by the United States (1960–present)

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]

Since 1960, the U.S. embargo on Cuba stands as one of the longest-running trade and economic measures in bilateral relations history, having endured for almost six decades. This action was initiated in response to a wave of nationalizations that impacted American properties valued at over US$1 billion. The then U.S. President, Dwight Eisenhower, instated an embargo that prohibited all exports to Cuba, with the exception of medicines and certain foods. This measure was intensified in 1962 under the administration of John F. Kennedy, extending the restrictions to Cuban imports, based on the Foreign Assistance Act approved by Congress in 1961. During the Missile Crisis in 1962, the United States even imposed a naval blockade on Cuba, but this was lifted following the resolution of the crisis. The embargo, however, remained in place and has been modified on several occasions over the years.

The Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 states that sanctions will continue "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights".[non-primary source needed] American diplomat Lester D. Mallory wrote an internal memo on 6 April 1960, arguing in favor of an embargo: "The only foreseeable means of alienating internal support is through disenchantment and disaffection based on economic dissatisfaction and hardship. [...] to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government." The UN General Assembly has passed a resolution every year since 1992 condemning the embargo and stating that it violates the Charter of the United Nations and international law. Cuba considers the embargo a human rights violation.

The impact and effectiveness of the embargo have been subjects of intense debate. While some argue it has been "extraordinarily porous" and isn't the primary cause of Cuba's economic hardships, others see it as a pressure mechanism aimed at driving change in the Cuban government. According to Arturo Lopez Levy, a professor of international relations, it would be more appropriate to refer to the measure as a "blockade" or "siege", as it goes beyond mere trade restrictions. Other critics of the Cuban government argue that the embargo has been used by the government as an excuse to justify its own economic and political shortcomings.

On 17 December 2014, United States President Barack Obama announced the re-establishment of diplomatic relations with Cuba, pushing for Congress to put an end to the embargo, as well as the United States-run Guantanamo Bay detention camp. These diplomatic improvements were later reversed by the Trump Administration, which enacted new rules and re-enforced the business and travel restrictions which were loosened by the Obama Administration. These sanctions were inherited and strengthened by the Biden Administration.

Despite the embargo, Cuba has maintained trade relations with other countries. According to 2019 data, China stands as Cuba's main trading partner, followed by countries such as Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Cyprus. Cuba's main exports include tobacco, sugar, and alcoholic beverages, while it primarily imports chicken meat, wheat, corn, and condensed milk.

Main article: Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces

As of 2018, Cuba spent about US$91.8 million on its armed forces or 2.9% of its GDP. In 1985, Cuba devoted more than 10% of its GDP to military expenditures. During the Cold War, Cuba built up the largest per capita armed forces in Latin America, funded and equipped by Moscow.

From 1975 until the late 1980s, Soviet military assistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. After the loss of Soviet subsidies, Cuba scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000 in 1994 to about 49,000 in 2021.

In 2017, Cuba signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Since signing a defense pact with Belarus in January 2024, Cuba has upgraded its S-125 Pechora air defense systems with Belarusian support.

Cuba is the 98th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.

Main article: Law enforcement in Cuba

See also: Committees for the Defense of the Revolution and Crime in Cuba

All law enforcement agencies are maintained under Cuba's Ministry of the Interior, which is supervised by the Revolutionary Armed Forces. In Cuba, citizens can receive police assistance by dialing "106" on their telephones. The police force, which is referred to as "Policía Nacional Revolucionaria" or PNR is then expected to provide help. The Cuban government also has an agency called the Intelligence Directorate that conducts intelligence operations and maintains close ties with the Russian Federal Security Service. The US Justice Department considers Cuba a significant counterintelligence threat.

Civilians are also involved in law enforcement, in a limited capacity. The Committees for the Defense of the Revolution are an official neighborhood watch organization, made up of dedicated citizens who monitor their neighborhoods. Membership is not selective, but leading members are approved by the Cuban Communist Party.

In 2003, the European Union (EU) accused the Cuban government of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms". As of 2009, it has continued to call regularly for social and economic reform in Cuba, along with the unconditional release of all political prisoners.

Cuba was ranked 19th by the number of imprisoned journalists of any nation in 2021 according to various sources, including the Committee to Protect Journalists and Human Rights Watch. Cuba ranks 171st out of 180 on the 2020 World Press Freedom Index.

In July 2010, the unofficial Cuban Human Rights Commission said there were 167 political prisoners in Cuba, a fall from 201 at the start of the year. The head of the commission stated that long prison sentences were being replaced by harassment and intimidation.

ಮೂಲ ಪತಾ

[ಸಂಪೊಲಿಪುಲೆ]
  1. ↑ Skidmore, Thomas E. (2005). Modern Latin America. Internet Archive. New York : Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517012-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  2. 1 2 3 "Republic of Cuba | Cuban history [1902–1959] | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  3. ↑ Ihrie, Maureen; Oropesa, Salvador (2011-10-20). World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-08083-8.
  4. ↑ "Cuban Revolution | Summary, Facts, Causes, Effects, & Significance | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2025-10-01. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  5. 1 2 3 Editors, HISTORY com (2021-08-19). "Cuban Revolution - 1959, Timeline & Summary". HISTORY (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  6. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (2010), Leffler, Melvyn P. (ed.), "Cuba and the Cold War, 1959–1980", The Cambridge History of the Cold War: Volume 2: Crises and Détente, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. 327–348, ISBN 978-0-521-83720-0, retrieved 2025-11-02
  7. ↑ "Cuba and the Cold War: A Historical Perspective". www.mexicohistorico.com. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  8. ↑ Domínguez, Jorge I. (1997). "U.S.-Cuban Relations: From the Cold War to the Colder War". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 39 (3): 49–75. doi:10.2307/166485. ISSN 0022-1937.
  9. ↑ "Where is Cuba in the World?". World Population Review (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2025-10-28. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  10. 1 2 "Cuba - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  11. 1 2 3 "Cuba | Government, Flag, Capital, Population, & Language | Britannica". www.britannica.com (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2025-11-02. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  12. ↑ "Home Page". courses.washington.edu. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  13. ↑ "Cuba". UNDP (in ಸ್ಪ್ಯಾನಿಷ್). Archived from the original on 2025-07-20. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  14. ↑ "Cuba Case Study | Climate Refugees | Othering & Belonging Institute". belonging.berkeley.edu (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  15. 1 2 "Small Island Developing States are on the frontlines of climate change – here's why | UNDP Climate Promise". climatepromise.undp.org (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2025-09-23. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  16. ↑ "Climate change". www.who.int (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  17. ↑ "The Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA)". www.carpha.org (in ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Archived from the original on 2025-09-28. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  18. ↑ "CubaCUB - Country Overview | Climate Change Knowledge Portal". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  19. ↑ "Climate change may make extreme hurricane rainfall 5 times more likely, study says - CBS News". www.cbsnews.com (in ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2020-08-29. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  20. ↑ "Florida braces for 'life threatening' Hurricane Irma". Al Jazeera (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  21. ↑ "Winds whip Florida Keys as Hurricane Irma turns sights northward". The Globe and Mail (in ಬ್ರಿಟಿಷ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2017-09-09. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  22. ↑ "Storm Gains Strength as It Nears Florida (Published 2017)" (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2017-09-09. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  23. 1 2 Oppmann, Hilary Clarke,Patrick (2017-09-11). "Irma kills 10 people in Cuba". CNN (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Unit, Biosafety. "Main Details". www.cbd.int (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  25. ↑ Suchlicki, Jaime (2001). Historical Dictionary of Cuba (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-2071-5.
  26. ↑ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil D.; Wikramanayake, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne; Hedao, Prashant; Noss, Reed; Hansen, Matt; Locke, Harvey; Ellis, Erle C.; Jones, Benjamin; Barber, Charles Victor (2017-06-01). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". Bioscience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
  27. ↑ Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen, P. R.; Ervin, J. (2020-12-08). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Wayback Machine" (PDF). www.constitutionnet.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-17. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  29. ↑ Cederlof, Gustav (2023). The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba. Critical Environments: Nature, Science, and Politics Series (1st ed ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-39313-4. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  30. ↑ "Country profile: Cuba" (in ಬ್ರಿಟಿಷ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 2012-08-14. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  31. ↑ "Cuba 1976 (rev. 2002) Constitution - Constitute". www.constituteproject.org (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  32. ↑ Fonseca Galvis, Ángela; Superti, Chiara (2019-10-03). "Who wins the most when everybody wins? Predicting candidate performance in an authoritarian election". Democratization (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 26 (7): 1278–1298. doi:10.1080/13510347.2019.1629420. ISSN 1351-0347.
  33. ↑ Domínguez, Jorge I.; Galvis, Ángela Fonseca; Superti, Chiara (2017). "Authoritarian Regimes and Their Permitted Oppositions: Election Day Outcomes in Cuba". Latin American Politics and Society (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 59 (2): 27–52. doi:10.1111/laps.12017. ISSN 1531-426X.
  34. ↑ Smyth, Regina; Bianco, William; Chan, Kwan Nok (2019-07). "Legislative Rules in Electoral Authoritarian Regimes: The Case of Hong Kong's Legislative Council". The Journal of Politics. 81 (3): 892–905. doi:10.1086/703068. ISSN 0022-3816. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. ↑ Domínguez, Jorge I.; Galvis, Ángela Fonseca; Superti, Chiara (2017-07). "Authoritarian Regimes and Their Permitted Oppositions: Election Day Outcomes in Cuba". Latin American Politics and Society (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 59 (2): 27–52. doi:10.1111/laps.12017. ISSN 1531-426X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ↑ "Elections: Latin American Studies: Collections: SSHL". sshl.ucsd.edu. Archived from the original on 2007-03-01. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  37. ↑ "Cuba | The Global State of Democracy". www.idea.int (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  38. ↑ "Democracy Index 2016 - The Economist Intelligence Unit". www.eiu.com. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  39. ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). freedomhouse.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-20. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  40. ↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). ctp.iccas.miami.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  41. ↑ "Cuba's Raul Castro announces retirement in 5 years". USA TODAY (in ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  42. ↑ "Raul Castro retires but Cuban Communist Party emphasizes continuity". Reuters (in ಅಮೆರಿಕನ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  43. ↑ Domínguez, Jorge I. (1989). To make a world safe for revolution: Cuba's foreign policy. Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass. London: Harvard Univ. Pr. ISBN 978-0-674-89325-2.
  44. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (1996-02). "Cuba's First Venture in Africa: Algeria, 1961–1965". Journal of Latin American Studies (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 28 (1): 159–195. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00012670. ISSN 0022-216X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ↑ Leffler, Melvyn P.; Westad, Odd Arne (2010). The Cambridge history of the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. ISBN 978-0-521-83719-4.
  46. 1 2 Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976. Envisioning Cuba. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2647-8.
  47. 1 2 Gleijeses, Piero (1997-02). "The First Ambassadors: Cuba's Contribution to Guinea-Bissau's War of Independence". Journal of Latin American Studies (in ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್). 29 (1): 45–88. doi:10.1017/S0022216X96004646. ISSN 0022-216X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  48. ↑ Ramazani, Rouhollah K. (1979). The Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. International straits of the world. Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff & Noordhoff [International Publishers]. ISBN 978-90-286-0069-0.
  49. 1 2 "Waterloo", The WPA Guide to 1930s Iowa, University of Iowa Press, pp. 313–320, retrieved 2025-11-02
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